|
Biology Vocabulary Chapter 1 Biology: the study of living beings and life processes Intricate: having many complexly integrated parts that are difficult to analyze or track; highly complicated DNA: the molecular basis of or code of life in living (or once living) organisms Pale: to appear dim, feeble, deficient or inferior Scientific Method: the process by which a general statement (a hypothesis) is written and tested through experimentation in order to reach a conclusion regarding the hypothesis Hypothesis: an assumption made in order to test and prove a logical conclusion Theory: a scientifically acceptable and test hypothesis offered to explain observed facts Scientific Law: a theory supported by experimental evidence and many years of successful observations with no exceptions Dogma: a point of view put forth as authorative but lacking evidence Renaissance: (ren e sans) a French word for the intellectual/cultural revival and beginning of modern science during 1300-1600 Excreta: waste material eliminated from an organism Geocentric Theory: the theory that the sun and other planetary bodies revolve around the earth Philogiston Theory: theory that every substance contains an imagined ingredient, philogiston, which causes combustion Dark Ages: a period of barbarism and cultural decline from the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A.D.) to about 1000 A.D. Rigor: strict precision; exactness Treatise: (tre tes) a written exposition or argument including facts, principles and conclusion presented methodically Evolution: the theory that higher forms of life have gradually evolved by chance from inorganic elements and lower life forms into the complex diversity of life that exists today Natural Selection: the process which results in the survival of individuals or groups best suited for their environment Tenents: beliefs or principles held to be true by a group or organization Catastrophe: a sudden, violent change in features of Earth by means of a global flood, upheaval or convulsion of the earth’s surface Naturalist: a student of nature, specifically plants and animals Paper: a formal written composition often designed for publication Catalyst: something that prompts a dramatic change Skeptics: persons having a doubting state of mind, especially concerning religion Aryan: referring to white, Northern Europeans and a white-supremacy philosophy Regime: (ray zheem) a socialist form of government Molecular: pertaining to the tiniest, most basic components of life in living organisms Amoeba: a simple, single-celled organism Inborn: inherited; present at birth Symbiotic relationship: or Symbiosis: a friendly relationship between organisms of two different species that live together in direct contact; each receives benefit from the other DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): the molecule responsible for heredity; found in the cell nucleus Element: a substance that cannot be broken down into other, smaller substances by ordinary chemical means Myriad: innumerable; too many to count Atom: the smallest unit of an element that still retains the properties of its element Nucleus: the dense core at the center of the atom. Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated here with all of the protons and neutrons Proton: a particle found in the nucleus which carries a positive charge and has a mass of one atomic mass unit (amu) Neutron: like the proton, a neutron is a particle found in the nucleus and has a mass of one atomic unit. However, a neutron bears no charge Mass: the amount of matter an object contains (Matter is defined as anything that takes up space.) Electron: a negatively charges particle which resides outside the nucleus of the atom and has little mass Electron orbitals: the region of the atom around the nucleus where electrons are found (also called energy levels or electron shells) Atomic number: a number representing the amount of protons in an atom Atomic mass: a number representing the sum of the protons and the neutrons in an atom Isotopes: different forms of the same element, having the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, thus, having the same atomic number but a different atomic mass Valence: the number of electrons an atom must gain or lose in order to become stable Ionic bond: a chemical bond that results when one atom gives up one or more of its outermost electrons to another atom Ion: a charged particle; an atom that has gained or lost an electron, thus acquiring a charge Covalent bond: the strongest bond formed by the sharing of valence electrons Hydrogen bond: a weak chemical bond formed when a partially positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the partially negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule Electronegative: charged with negative electricity; an atom having the tendency to pull electrons toward itself Ionized: when ionic bonds of compounds dissociate into separate ions Acid: a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution Base: a substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution pH scale: a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration which is the degree of acidity or basicity Buffers: a substance that minimizes changes in pH when acids or bases are introduced to a system Compound: a chemical combination in a fixed ratio of two or more elements Molecule: two or more atoms of one or more elements held together by ionic or covalent bonds Molecular formula: a molecular notation or shorthand representing the kinds and quantity of different atoms in a molecule Structural formula: a molecular notation in which the atoms within a molecule are joined by lines representing covalent bonds Molecular weight: the sum of the weights of all atoms in a molecule of a substance Gram Molecular Weight or Mole: the number of grams of a substance that equals its molecular weight. A mole contains 6.023 x 1023 number of molecules, Avogadro’s number Avogadro’s Number: the number of molecules in a mole: 6.023 x 1023 Solution: a homogeneous, liquid mixture of two or more substances Solvent: the dissolving agent in a solution; water is the most versatile solvent Solute: a substance that is dissolved in a solution Molarity: a common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute in 1 liter of solution Chemical reaction: the rearrangement of atoms in matter that produce a new substance Reactants: the starting materials in a chemical reaction Products: the resulting materials from a chemical reaction Thermal agitation: speeding up the motion of molecules with the use of energy Exergonic reaction: spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy Endogonic reaction: a non-spontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings Reversible reaction: a reaction that may go forward or backward Equilibrium point: the point at which the rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal. At this point in a reversible reaction, there is no net change in the concentrations of the reactants or the products Irreversible reaction: a reaction that may go only in the forward direction Activation energy: the energy needed to get a chemical reaction going Polar: a chemical bonding in which the valence electrons are shared equally, causing the molecule to develop a positive end (where the electrons spend less time) and a negative end (where the electrons spend more time) Tetrahedral: in the shape of a tetrahedron which is a geometric solid having four sides, each of which is a triangle (as in a pyramid) Nonpolar: a bond in which valence electrons are shared equally so that the charges are distributed evenly Micelles: electronically charges particles, formed at the interface of polar and non-polar bonds in substances such as oil and water Cohesion: the holding together of like substances Adhesion: the holding of one substance to a different one Surface tension: a measure of difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid; water has a high surface tension because of hydrogen bonding of surface molecules Capillary action: the ability of a liquid to move up a piece of porous paper, or to creep through fine pores in the soil or in a leaf Specific heat: the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temperature 1° C Thermal conductivity: the measurement of the rate of heat as it is conducted through a liquid Organic compounds: those compounds that contain carbon and occur mainly in living systems Inorganic compounds: all substances that do not contain carbon. There are some simple carbon compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbonate compounds (containing CO2) that are considered in organic Hydrocarbons: organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen Monomers: simple small organic molecules Polymers or macromolecules: large molecules consisting of many identical or similar monomers linked together Functional groups: specific configurations of atoms that are commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules. They offer a way of organizing the compounds into "families" and are usually involved in chemical reactions Organic acids: compounds that contain carboxyl groups (COOH) and amino acids; they release hydrogen ions in solution Carbohydrates: compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; includes sugars, starches, and related molecules Cellulose: a structural polysaccharide in cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers Monosaccharides: simplest forms of carbohydrates, also known as simple sugars: glucose, frucose, galactose; require no digestion to be utilized by body; provide quick energy Disaccharide: two simple sugars (monosaccharides) linked together chemically, must be digested before entering bloodstream and being used by the body Polysaccharide: a polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides Starch: a polysaccharide used by plants as excess sugar storage Glycogen: a polysaccharide made and stored in animal liver or muscle tissue as a ready reserve of energy Lipids: a family of compounds that are insoluble in water, but soluble in nonpolar solvents; lipids are waxy, fatty or oily compounds used to store and release energy Fatty acid: a long chain of carbon and hydrogen with a carboxyl (~COOH) on one end Steroids: a class of lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached Protein: a polymer of amino acids used for building cells, catalyzing reactions and other purposes Amino acids: organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups; are the building blocks of proteins Hormone: a chemical messenger secreted in one part of the body that effects other parts of the body Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of chemical reactions by lowering activation energy; catalysts are not altered by the reactions, nor do catalysts alter the equilibrium points of reactions Enzymes: a class of proteins serving as catalysts in living systems Reactant: an element or compound that enters into a chemical reaction Hydrolysis: decomposition or breaking down of a compound into other compounds by taking up water Substrate: the substance on which an enzyme works Active site: that specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak chemical bonds Induced fit: the change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate Nucleic acids: the information carrying molecules of the cell; known as the code of life, thread of life or blueprint of life; of two kinds: DNA and RNA Genetics: the study of heredity and variations in organisms in terms of composition and characteristics passed from one generation to the next DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNA): the genetic material of all cells; consists of two, long, thin polymeric chains twisted about each other in the form of a double helix RiboNucleic Acid (RNA): a principle type of nucleic acid that carries out the instructions coded in DNA Helix: any object having a coiled or spiral form such as a metal spring or DNA molecule ATP (Adenosine TriPhosphate): energy storage in nucleic acids of cells, can release large amounts of energy in muscle tissue AMP (Adenosine MonoPhosphate): regulates many cellular and enzymatic processes Blueprint: a comprehensive, master plan for a project, a detail plan of action Hemoglobin opathy: a condition resulting from one amino acid being out of sequence in the hemoglobin molecule Sickle cell anemia: a disease whereby red blood cells are deformed, fragile and easily ruptured, leaving victim with less red blood cells; can lead to kidney or heart failure Optical isomers: optical isomers having the same structural formula and the same bonds, but are mirror images of each other Tryptophan: an essential amino acid formed from protein by certain enzymes; found in milk and many other foods Levo: Latin for left-handed; used to designate the different forms of optical isomers Dextra: Latin for right-handed; used to designate the different forms of optical isomers Racemic mixture: a solution containing equal amounts of both L and D isomers |
|
Biology Vocabulary Chapter 2 Cell: smallest working unit of living things Micrometer: a unit of length used in microscopic measurments; on thousandth of a millimeter Micrscope: an instrument that produces magnified images of tiny structures Monastery: a large residence for monks (single men who have taken religious vows of seperation from sociey) Contemporary: living and working during the same time period as someone else Biogenesis: the theory that living organisms originate from other living organisms Protoplasm: living substance, the material of cells Fibrils: small threadlike fibers Cytoplasm: a portion of the cell outside the nucleus which means "cell fluid"; contains many complex organelles Electron microscope: a microscope that uses a beam of electrons to examine a sample Compound light microscope: a microscope that uses lenses and light to magnify an image Scanning probe microscope: a microscope that trace the surface of a sample with a small tip call probe Bacteria: prokaryote with a cell membrane and genetic material not surrounded by a nuclear envelope Protozoa: a class of primitive, eukaryotic and unicelluar organisms Absorption: the transport of dissolved substances into cells Digestion: the chemical breakdown of food into materials that can be absorbed and used by an organism for nourishment Respiration: the oxidation of food molecules which produces energy and releases carbon dioxide Biosynthesis: the process by which living organisms produce needed substances Excretion: the removal of soluble waste materials from the cell Egestion: the removal of non-soluble waste materials from the cell Secretion: the release of biosynthesized substances for use by other cells Movement: the function by which a cell either moves from one point to another or moves something within the cell itself Irritability: the function of a cell as it senses and responds to the changing environment 4 Homeostasis: maintaining the status quo in a cell; maintaining the order in the cell and making sure that all substances needed by the cell are continuosly available Reproduction: the process by which a cell produces more cells Prokaryotic: a type of organism that does not contain neclei; typically a small, single celled bacteria Eukaryotic: organisms made of cells, each of which contain a nucleus, a cell membrane, and membrains around different organelles Cell mebrane: part of the cell's outer boundary; contains a lipid bilayer Organelles: small structures within the cell that perform specializedf functions Phospholipids: a class of lipid molecules, each molecule having a polar, hydrophilic head and two, non-polar hydrophilic tails; important components of biological membranes Cell wall: tough, porous boundary that lies outside the cell membrane; found in plant cells and in some bacteria, but not in animal cells Cellulous: a structual polysaccharide in cell walls; a tough, flexible compound that gives plants and cells their strength and rigidity Chemical homeostasis: maintaining the status quo in a cell; maintaining the order in the cell and making sure that all substances needed by the cell are continuosly available Passive transport: movement of substances across the cell membrane from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration; occurs without cell expending energy Active transport: movement of a substance against a concentration difference; a process that requires energy Diffusion: process by which substances spread through a liquid or gas from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane; water flows from regions of high concentration of water to regions of low concentration of water Carrier molecules: a protien molecule embedded in the cell membrane lipid bylayer which is involved in facilitated diffusion of substances across the cell membrane; each carrier molecule is unique and designed to transport a specific substance Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of substances across cell membrane through special carrier protiens that falicitate the diffusion process Osmotic pressure: the pressure created by the differences in concentration of water in two regions seperated by a semi-permeable membrane; the region with more pure water will have a higher osmotic pressure than the region with less pure water; water will therefore flow from the higher concentration region to the lower concentration region Cytolysis: the rupturing of a cell due to excess internal osmotic pressure Plasmolysis: a collapse of the cell due to water flowing out of the cell Endocytosis: the process by which cells take in substances by causing a part of the plasma membrane to surround the substance Late: refers to a person who is deceased Nucleus: (plural is nuclei) a structure within the cell that contains almost all call's DNA; a large, dense structure that is considered the most important organelle in a cell; may be referred to as the cell's "control center" Chromatin: the material in the nucleus from which chromosomes consisting of DNA and protiens are made Chromosomes: structures n the nucleus that form from chromatin when the cell prepares to divide Nucleolus: a small, dense region in the nucleus where ribosomes are made Ribosomes: small particles in the cell, made of RNA and protien; sites of protien assembly Golgi apparatus: network of membranes within a cell that, in conjunction with the endoplasmic reticulum, processes and transports protiens and other macromolecules; contains special enzymes that attatch carbohydrates or lipids to a protien Cilia: short, hairlike projection in some cells; often used to pull the organism though water with a coordinated rowing movement Flagella: whiplike projection found on some cells; usually used for cell movement ATP (Adenosine TriPhosphate): energy produced by the mitchocondria from chemical fuel and oxygen Second Law of Thermodynamics: the amount of disorder (entropy) in a system tends to increase, always tending toward less usable energy or energy that can do useful work Entropy: measure of the unusable or unavailable energy in a system; also the measue of disorder in a system Free energy: usable energy in a chemical system: energy available for producing change Kinetic energy: the energy of motion, which is related directly to the speed of that motion Potential energy: the energy stored by matter as a result of its location or position Cellular respiration: the process by which the cell converts a food fuel such as glucose into ATP in the presence of oxygen ATP (Adenosine TriPhosphate): energy storage compound cells; composed of a sugar, adenosine and 3 phosphate groups Cilium: a microscopic hair; plural is cilia; cilia are attached to certain kinds of cells that line certain body passageways Glycolysis: a series of reactions in which a molecule of glucose is broken down to produce a net gain of two ATP molecules Coenzymes or Cofactors: additional molecules that are requiered before and enzyme will catalyze a reaction; many are from vitamins and each can be reused rapidly NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide): a coenzyme present in all cells and is required in cellular respiration FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide): a coenzyme present in all cells and is required in cellular respiration Coenzyme A (CoA): a coenzyme present in all cells and is requiredin cellular respiration Respectively: referring a series of items in the order listed PGAL (PhosphoGylcerALdehyde): an intermediate molecule formed in the process of glycolysis Pyruvic acid: the end-product molecule of glycolysis Anaerobic step: a reaction step that requires no oxygen for completion Fermentation: regenerated of NAD+ to keep glycolysis running in the absence of oxygen Cristae: the inner, infolded membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the third stage of respiration; increases the surface area within the mitochondrial matrix; enables the cell to produce larger amounts of energy Mitochondrial matrix: the compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane; contains enzymes and substances for the Krebs Cycle Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle: a series of reactions in which the chenical bonds in pyruvic acid are broken to produce one molecule of ATP and five, high energy electrons Oxaloacetic acid: a 4-carbon intermediate compound in the Krebs Cycle which, when combined with acetyl CoA, initiates the Krebs Cycle Citric acid: the 6-carbon intermediate compound in the Krebs Cycle (or Citric Acid Cycles) Electron transport chain: series of molecules located in the inner membrane of the mitchocondrion that recieve high-energy electrons from electron carriers Macromolecules: large, complex molecules made up of smaller molecules linked togther to form chainlike molecules Synthesis: formation of a compound or complex substance from elements or simpler compounds Triglycerides: fatty compounds formed when acid radicals replace 3 hydrogen atoms in glycerol Photosynthesis: process by which green plants use the energy of sunlight to produce carbohydrates Cellulose: a structual polysaccharide in cell walls; consists of glucose monomers Chloroplasts: organelles found in plants and certain type of algae; harvests the energy of sunlight Thylakoids: flattened membrane sacs inside the chloroplasts; the location of chlorophyll and the photosynthesis process Chlorophyll: principal pigment of green plants Visible spectrum: that part of the light spectrum visible to the human eye Light-dependant reaction: the reactio process during photosynthesis that requires direct involvment of light Photosynthetic electron transport chain: the process by which electrons are passed from one molecule to another in order to release energy NADP+: (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate): an electron carrier used during the photosynthesis process NADPH: the electron carrier NADP+ which has been converted by electrons Light-independant reactions: the reaction process during photosynthesis that requires no direct involvment of light PGA (PhosphateGlycericAcid): a 3-carbon intermediate compound produced during the Calvin Cycle Calvin Cycle: chemical pathway used to convert energy from ATP and NADP+ into sugars; also called light-independant reactions Cell division: process in which a cell divides into two independant daughter cells Binar fission: reproduction by the division of a cell into two essential equal parts by a simple, non mitotic process Mitosis: process of cell division in eukaryotic cells in which each of thedaughter cells has identical DNA information as the parent cell Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm that takes place during mitosis in most cells Meiosis: process of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the cell bu half; creates gametes used for sexual reproduction Gametes: reproductive cell that can unite with another reproductive call to form an organism Fungi: (plural of fungus) once classified as plants, but now as a seperate kingdom of organisms known as decomposers; includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms Protists: mainly one-celled eukaryotic organisms that do not fit the definition of plant, animal, or fungi Somatic cell: any human or multicellular animal cell except those involved with reproduction Chromosomes: threadlike bodies found in the nucleus of a cell when it divides; contains all of the cell's hereditary characteristics Chromatid: strands of a chromosome that occurs in identical pairs; combined with its sister chromitid, constitutes a chromesome centromere: the part of a chromosome in which the chromosomes are attached Centromere: the point on a chromesome by which it is drawn to the pole during mitosis Microtubule: cytoskeleton component that provides a tough, flexible framework of support for the cell; composes structures like cilia and flagella Mitotic: having to do with mitosis Vesicle: a tiny sac or cavity Homologue: one set in a pair of homologous chromesomes Homologous chromesomes: chromosome pairs of the same length and centromere position, containing the same kind of genetic information; one homologue is inherited from each parent Amylase: a starch-digesting enzyme found in human salivia and digestive juices Rh blood factor: one or more genetically determined substances in red blood cells capable of inducing an intense immune system reaction; lacking in Rh negative persons Diploid: from the Greek word "diplos", meaning double or two; having two of each type of chromesome Haploid: from the Greek word "haplos", meaning single; having one of each type of chromesome Meiosis: process of nuclear division in which the number of chromesomes is reduced in half; the process by which gametes are procuced Synapsis: forming pairs or aligning side by side Crossing over: exchange of parts two homologous chromesomes during meiosis Cancer: a condition in which regulation of the cell cycle has been lost, resulting in an uncontrolled growth of cells Proliferation: rapid growth or production Cyclins: protiens which control cell division and regulate the timing of the cell cycle Macrophage: an amoeba-like cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis Phagocytosis: the process by which cells take in large substances by causing a part of the plasma membrane to surround the substance Neurons: cells that carry impulses throughout the nervous system |
|
Biology Vocabulary Chapter 3 Genetics: the study of heredity Grafting: inserting a bud or shoot of one plant into a slit in another closely related plant so that the bud or shoot becomes a permanent part of the host plant Dowry: a gift of money, goods or property given by a person to his or her spouse in marriage Mineralogy: the scientific study of minerals, involved geology, chemistry and physics Botany: the scientific study of plants Herbarium: a collection of dried plant specimens systematically arranged for studying Abbot: the "superior" in charge of a monastery Acoustical Effect: an effect of sound Doppler Effect: a change in wavelength, observable when the sourcee of radiation (sound, light, etc.) is in motion Tutelage: teaching or tutoring Sans: without Gene: segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait; the unti by which hereditary traits are transmitted True-breeding: a stock of plants that always passes its traits to the next generation Stamen: male part of the plant that produces pollen Carple: female part of a flower Hybrid: offspring of parents with different characteristics F1 generation: the first hybrid generation in Mendel's experiment; the letter F stands for filius which means "son" in Latin P generation: the parental or original parents in Mendel's experiments F2 generation: the second generation in Mendel's experiments Allele: (al la lee) the different forms of a gene; portions of DNA that carry the information for contrasting forms of the same genetic trait (e.g. red and white flowers) Multiple alleles: a gene that is determined by more than two alleles for a single trait Gamete: a sexual reproductive cell that must fuse with another such cell before development begins; an egg or a male sex cell that contains a haploid number of genes Law of Dominance: a Mendelian principle which concludes that in heterozygous condition, on allele of a gene may express itself and mask the presence of the other allele Dominant: form of gene that is expressed when present, excludes the recessive form; represented by an uppercase letter Recessive: form of gene that is not expressed in the presence of the dominant form; represented by a lowercase letter Phenotype: outward manifestation of a genetic trait displayed by an organism Genotype: genetic composition and description of an organism Homozygous: description of an organism that has an identical pair of allels for a trait Heterozygous: description of an organism that has a mixed pair of alleles for a trait Law of Segregation: a Mendelian principle which concludes that paired genes must seperate from each other during gamete formation (meiosis) Punnett square: a convenient diagram used to predict the genotypes of offspring Independent assortment: a Mendelian law or principle which concludes that different genes do not influence each other's segregation during gamete formation Dihybrid cross: involves two pairs of contrasting traits, either homozygous ot heterozygous; is illustrated by a 16-box Punnett square Gene Linkage: the condition in which genes are inherited together due to their close proximity on the same chromosome Crossing-over: exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meosis Incomplete Dominance: genetic condition in which neither allele is completely dominant or recessive; results in a blending of the phenotypes but not the genes Co-dominance: genetic condition in which both dominant and recessive alleles are expressed Erminette: black and white flecked, spotted- variable black and white feathers Polygenic Inheritance: the additive effect of two or more genes which results in an inherited characteristi Probability: the mathmatical principle used to predict the chances or likehood of certain events Colchicines: a poison that breaks down microtubules Karyotype: diagrammatic representation of individual chromosomes cut out from a photograph and grouped together Autosomes or Autosomal Chromosomes: any chromosomes other than sex chromosome somatic cells; any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg X and Y chromosomes: chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual Zygote: a fertilized egg Pedigree: diagram that tracks the inheritance of a single gene through several generations of a family Colorblindness: a sex-linked genetic disorder which is the inability to see and discern certain colors; a recessive phenotype usually inherited by males Hemophilia: a sex-linked genetic disorder in which the blood does not clot normally; a recessive trait that is usually exhibited by males Antigens: molecules that stimulate the production of antibodies Entity: something that has a distinct existence and objective reality Molecular Genetics: science based on the activity of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and the role of DNA in the production of protiens in the cell Synthesize: to put together a substance chemically or biochemically Virulent: disease producing and extremely dangerous Transformation: process of reproduction in which genetic material is added to, or replaces portions of, a bacteria's DNA Bacteriohages: any vrius that infects bacteria; also called a "phage." Radioactive Isotopes: a form of an element that has a nucleus that gives off particles and energy; isotopes of an element vary in the number of neutrons Radioactivity: the release of particles and energy from an isotope Nucleotide: compound made of a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base, and a 5-carbon sugar; forms the basic subunit of DNA Chargaff's Rule: based on the discovery that DNA nucleotides contain equal amounts of cytosine and guanine, as well as adenine and thymine X-ray diffraction: a technique in which the scattering pattern of X-rays is recorded on film to be studied Double-helix: a term for the form of DNA, referring to its two adjacent nucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape DNA replication: process in which DNA is copied Chromatin: material of chromosomes that consists of DNA and proteins Histones: proteins which are attached to chromosomes which may play a role in protecting and organizing DNA Nucleosomes: tiny particle formed by histones which help to fold and package DNA Propensity: natural inclination Template: a molecule that serves as a pattern for another macromolecule Semi-conservative replication: the method bu which DNA is repliacted; each daughter cell recieves one strand of the original DNA DNA polymerase: the enzyme which is responsible for joining the nucleotides together during DNA replication Okazaki fragments: new fragments of DNA that are joined together by the enzyme DNA ligase DNA ligase: the enzyme which joins Okazaki fragments together to form a new strand of DNA RNA (ribonucleic acid): a principal type of nucleic acid that carries out the instructions coded in DNA Messenger RNA (mRNA): a form of RNA that carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a form of RNA molecule that carries out the instructions coded in DNA Ribosomes: small particles in the cell that are made of RNA and protien; sites of protein assembly Transfer RNA (tRNA): form of RNA that carries an amino acid to the ribosomes during the assembly of a protein Transcription: process in which the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule is copied into an RNA molecule RNA polymerase: the enzyme responsible for producing RNA from DNA, one nucleotide at a time Genetic code: language of the instructions in DNA and RNA that code for the amino acids in proteins Codon: group of three nucleotides that codes for one of the twenty amino acids Translation: process by which the nucleotides in mRNA are decoded into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide Anticodon: three complementary nucleotides in transfer RNA that bind to a codon in mRNA Operon: a region of the DNA molecule used for gene regulation processes Repressor: the repressor gene codes for the repressor protein; the repressor protein blocks a gene's transcription by binding to the operator Operator: special region of DNA to which the repressor binds Inducer: something that prompts another entity to action; specifically, a substance capable of activating a structual gene by combining with and inactivating a genetic repressor Introns: intervening sequences that is removed from mRNA and therefore not expressed Exons: expressed sequence of mRNA; a region that remains in mRNA after the introns are removed Human genome: the complete set of genes in an individual (perhaps as many as 10 million) Orchestrate: to direct and cooridinate an activity (such as a symphony orchestra); to ensure a harmonious or efficient out come Mutation: inheritablr alternation in the genetic information of a cell Melanin: brown pigment that gives skin and hiar their color Vitiligo: sporatic absence of pigment in various body parts Hemoglobin: iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that helps to transport oxygen to all parts of the body Nondisjunction: failure of chromosome pair to seperate correctly during meosis Trisomy: condtion caused by cells that contain three copies of a chromosome rather than two copies Mutagens: agents which cuase mutations Chromosomal mutations: change in the number or structure of a cell's chromosomes; a mutation that affects the entire chromosome Polyploid: the condition in which a celol has three or more sets of chromosomes Polyploidy: the condition of being polyploid Gene mutation: mutation that involves only a single gene Point mutation: gene mutation that involves a single nucleotide Frameshift mutation: gene mutation that involves the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide, thus changing the grouping of codons Transposition: gene mutation in which long streches of DNA (containing one or more genes) move from one chromosomes to another Transposons: the genes which are involved in transposition mutation; can disrupt transcription and change the type of amino acids inserted into a protein Happenstance: a circumstance regarding as being due to chance Genetic engineering: manipulation and insertion of genes and DNA from different sources into an organism Selective breeding: producing a new generation by mating individuals with desired characteristics Hybridization: mating of two organisms with dissimilar genetic characteristics Inbreeding: mating of organisms with similar genetic charcateristics Restriction enzyme: protein that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides Electrophoresis: technique used in which electric fields are used to seperate biological material Recombinant DNA: pieces of DNA from two or more sources that are reassembled to act as a single DNA molecule Cell transformation: the changing of a cell's genetic makeup by the indertion of DNA Plasmids: small, circular DNA molecules in some bacteria that can be used in cell transformation Vectors: recombinant DNA plasmids that serve as delivery agents or gene carriers Transgenic: description of an organism that has been transformed or altered with genes from another organism Insulin: a hormone that regulates metabolism of sugar and carbohydrates in the body; needed by many patients with diabetes Interferon: a chemical that is produced in the body in tiny amounts; an anti-viral agent used against certain types of cancers and for certain skin diseases Cloning: the process of artificially producing an organism genetically identical to a biological organism Ethical: pertaining to accepted moral principles of conduct Gene therapy: a process in which a healthy gene can be directly inserted into a person with a malfunctioning gene; the goal is to provide the cell information needed to produce the lacking protein DNA fingerprinting: technique used to identify an individual from the unique pattern of DNA Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs): dark bands revealed when pieces of DNA are seperated and identified by electrophoresis; can be used to identify and classify an individual's unique DNA Forensic medical science: a science dealing with the relation and application of medical facts to legal problems |
|
Biology Vocabulary Chapter 4 Naturalism: a theory denying supernatural significance; the doctrine that scientific laws are adequate to account for all phenomena Abominable: detestable, worthy of contempt Validate: to confirm the truth concerning a thing Scientific law: begins as a theory, is validated or proven true by many lines of evidence and many years of successful experiments and observations Scientific method: the process by which a general statement (the hypothesis) is written and tested through experimentation in order to reach a conclusion regarding the hypothesis Theory: a scientifically acceptable and test hypothesis offered to explain observed facts Hypothesis: an assumption made in order to test and prove a logical conclusion Paleontologist: one who studies ancient life forms, such as plant and animal fossils Design: a theory that the irreducible complexity of organisms could not have come about by chance, that complex organisms illustrate plan and purpose Theology: the study of God and His relationship to the world Naturalist: a student of nature, specifically plants and animals Living diversity: the existence of many varieties of life in the plant and animal kingdoms Catastrophist theory: the theory that Earth experienced a major catastrophe such as a flood, in which most of Earth's creatures and plants were destroyed; their fossilized remains reveal that their descendents have changed very little over time Topography: physical features of the land such as lakes, rivers and mountains Natural selection: the process that results in the survival of individuals or groups best suited for their environment Archipelago: an expanse of water with many scattered islands Eon: the largest division of geologic time Artificial selection: method of selective breeding of organisms to produce offspring with desirable characteristics Natural selection: the process which results in the survival of individuals or groups best suited for their environment Survival of the fittest: theoretical results of the natural selection process Common descent: hypothesis suggesting that species have descended from a common ancestor Species: a particular kind of organism; members of a species group possessing similar anatomical characteristics and the ability to interbreed Reproductive isolation: separation of different species that cannot interbreed Gene pool: all of the alleles of all the genes of the members of a population that interbreed Gene shuffling: the process that produces variations due to the cross-over mechanism during gamete formation Gene flow: the variation in genes that occurs when one population group breeds with another Evolutionary fitness: an organism's ability to pass on its genes successfully to its offspring Normal distribution: the bell-shaped curve that is characteristic of inheritance Stabilizing selection: the natural selection process that occurs when the environment continually eliminates individuals at extremes of a population Disruptive selection: the natural selection process that occurs when the environment favors extreme types in a population at the expense of intermediate forms, thereby splitting the population into two or more populations Directional selection: the natural selection process that occurs when the environment acts for or against an extreme characteristic and the likely result is the replacement of one gene group with another gene group Genetic drift: random change in allele frequency, often producing offspring that will be different from the original population by chance Founder effect: the change in allele frequencies produced when a new population arises from one or a few colonizing individuals Mutation: inheritable alteration in the genetic information in a cell Adaptation: development of physical and behavioral traits that make organisms better suited to survive in their environment Speciation: the formation of a new species through evolutionary processes Horizontal evolution (microevolution): evolution or change of a n organism by natural selection so that the organism transforms into a more specialized form or variation of the same species Vertical evolution (macroevolution): the hypothesis that the same processes which work in microevolution, over eons of time, transform an organism into a completely different kind of organism, in a totally different specie group, such as a cow evolving into a whale Neo-Darwinism: updated or modern Darwinism; combines Darwinism with the findings of modern genetics Taxonomist: a scientist trained to classify organisms Banded: colored bands or rings applied to bind legs for identification purposes Hybridization: interbreeding to produce new variations Divergence: the evolutionary process by which life forms evolve into different organisms with different characteristics as a result of their environment Neo-Darwinism hypothesis: includes updated or more recent additions to original Darwinism; same as neo-Darwinism MIT: Massachusetts Institute of Technology; one of the world's leading centers of higher learning for scientific and technological education and research Pathogen: a disease-causing organism Paleontology: study of prehistoric life forms represented by fossilized plants and animals Strata: distinct layers of rock in the Earth's crust Sedimentary rocks: rocks that form when salt, sand, or clay builds up in the bottom of a river, lake or ocean Geologic column: a continuum of geologic strata in the Earth's crust with a presumed time scale based on the types of fossils found in each of the strata Geology: the study of the Earth's crust and surface features and their history Uniformitarianism: the hypothesis that the origin and development of Earth's physical features cab be explained exclusively in terms of current natural processes Benevolent: characterized by kindness and goodwill Index fossils: "marker fossils" assumed to have been widespread in occurrence, and to have lived a limited duration; marks a specific age of strata in the geologic column Postulate: to claim a thing as being true Degenerate: to pass from a higher, more functional condition to a lower, less functional condition; to deteriorate or move from better to worse Atypical: unusual, out of the ordinary Gargantuan: gigantic; enormous; colossal; of tremendous size or volume Polystratic Trees: upright, fossilized tree remains extending through several layers of geological strata; literally means "many strata" Hydraulic: accomplished by means of water; pertaining to pressurized water in motion Tarpan: a small European wild horse about 4.5 feet tall with a long head, short thick neck and upright mane Ass: an Old World wild horse having a short mane, long ears and short tail hairs; they run in large herds (up to 1000) having much endurance and speed (30-40 miles per hour), donkeys are domestic asses Primate: any member of the highest order of mammals; includes man apes, monkeys, lemurs and tarsiers Paleoanthropology: the study of hominid life based on fossil remains found in the earth Hominid: any of a family of two-legged primates; includes humans and closely related primates Homologous structures: body parts that have a similar structure but not necessarily a common function Vestigial organ: structure in an organism that seems to have little or no obvious use Coccyx: the tailbone; forms the lower end of the spinal column in humans and tailess apes Biogenetic law: also known as the recapitulation theory; an hypothesis that maintains that the development of an embryo retraces the evolutionary development of the organism Ontogeny: the process of embryonic development Phylogeny: the process of evolutionary development Molecular phylogeny: evolutionary history of a group of organisms based on DNA and protein comparisons Molecular clock: hypothesis that mutations in DNA occur at a constant rate; used to estimate time frames of departure from a common ancestor Phylogenetic tree: modern version of the Darwinian tree of life; estimation of the time needed for organisms to evolve from a common ancestor Cytochrome C: a protein used in cellular metabolism Thermodynamics: the branch of physics that deals with heat in relationship to other forms of energy and the conversion of one into the other First Law of Thermodynamics: also known as the Law of Energy and Mass Conservation Closed system: neither matter nor energy leaves the system, as in the universe Second Law of Thermodynamics: known as the Law of Energy Decay or Deterioration Law of Entropy Increase: states that entropy is always increasing, and conversely that energy is always decreasing Morpholysis: a principle of nature; from a Greek word which means the "breaking down or losing of structure" Open system: either matter or energy can leave the system, as in the earth Law of Cause and Effect: a basic universal law requiring that every material effect (result) must have an adequate cause that existed prior to the effect Irreducible complexity: the condition that occurs when by reducing the complexity of a functioning unit, the function is completely destroyed Autoimmune diseases: non-contagious diseases in which the body's immune system attacks the body's cells, such as in rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, lupus erythemotosus, multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease Neural system: central nervous system Tommy gun: a Thompson submachine gun; a portable automatic firearm using pistol-type ammunition and fired from shoulder or hip Probability: the mathematical calculation of the likelihood of an event occurring; provides the basis or foundation of statistics Mortality Tables: charts showing the number of deaths recorded of various age groups during certain time periods Shakespeare: (1564-1616) considered to be one of the greatest of authors; he was a poet, an actor and playwright of comedies, histories and tragedies Hamlet: one of Shakespeare's most famous tragedy-type plays Punctuated Equilibrium: a modification of Darwinism entailing a pattern of long periods of stability interrupted by episodes of rapid change in which new forms of species evolved Intelligent Design: the theory that an intelligent force was responsible for the creation of all life forms Mt. Rushmore: a mountain in South Dakota with 60 ft. likenesses of four United States presidents sculpted into its granite face over a 14 year period by American sculptor Gutzon Borglum |
|
Biology Vocabulary Chapter 5 Parameters: A set of physical properties such as boundaries or limits whose values determine the behavior of something Astronomical literature: literature pertaining to the science of astronomy Appreciable: something capable of being measured; enough; sufficient Astrophysicist: a scientist who studies the branch of astronomy dealing with the physical, chemical composition of celestial matter (things in outer space) Uniformitarianism: hypothesis that the origen and development of all things can be explained exclusively in terms of current natural processes Young Earth theory: lower limits of origen generally placed between 6,000 = 10,000 years Old Earth theory: Earth currently claimed to be 4.6 billion years old Radioactive dating: a method using half-lives of radioactive isotopes to determine the age of fossils and rocks Isotope: any of two or more forms of an element having the same atomic number and the same chemical properties but different physical properties Alluviam: soil or sediments deposited by a river or other running water Lord Kelvin: born William Thompson; famous British physicist given honorary title; inventor of Kelvin Temperature Scale Spontaneous generation: the theory that life arose by itself, without assistance (spontaneously) from a "primordial soup" of watery chemicals and rock; the production of living organisms from non-living matter Albuminous: containing heat-coagulable proteins such as occur in blood, egg white, muscle and certain other plant and animal substances Synthesize: put together, combine; produce a substance by uniting various elements Taxonomy: the science of naming organisms and assigning them to groups Immutable entity: something incapable of changing Morphology: the study of the structure of organisms Genus (genera, pl.): classification of a major group of closely related organisms Specie: smallest group in the classification system of organisms that share similar characteristics and interbreed in nature Hierarchy: a graded or ranked series, each being subordinated to the one above it as in military ranking Mnemonic: a code, rhyme or other device for assisting one's memory Family: classification of a group of closely related genera Order: classification of several families of similar organisms Classes: classification categories of related orders Phylum: category made up of several classes of different organisms that share important characteristics Kingdom: highest ranking classification of living organisms; one of the six major groups Macroscopic: visible to the naked eye Motile: capable of spontaneous movement; mobile Prokaryotic: lacking a nuclear membrane separating the DNA from the cytoplasm, has no other membrane-bound organelles Eukaryotic: with a nuclear membrane surrounding the genetic material and with various membrane-bound organelles Autotrophs: organisms that are able to make their own food, such as plants Heterotrophs: organisms that depend on other organisms for food Bacteria: prokaryotic with a cell membrane and genetic material not surrounded by a nuclear envelope Monera: the kingdom in which all bacteria were once placed Peptidogylcan: a carbohydrate which makes up the thick rigid walls of the members of the kingdom Eubacteria Binary fission: an asexual form of reproduction in which a cell divides in half to produce two identical daughter cells Conjugation: a form of sexual reproduction that results in new combinations of genes Transformation: the process of reproduction in which genetic material is added to or replaces portions of a bacteria's DNA Virus: a non-living particle that contains DNA or RNA and can infect a host cell Algae (singular, alga): single-celled, photosynthetic organisms classified as protists Sargasso Sea: a warm body of water within the lower-middle North Atlantic Ocean; named for its masses of floating sargassum (sargasso) sea weed Plankton: tiny algae organisms that float in the water Protozoas: a sub-group of the Kingdom Protista which are heterotrophs and are mobile Spore: a small, typically single-celled structure capable of growing into a new organism, either immediately upon leaving its source or after a period of dormancy Saprophytic: feeding on dead matter Parasitic: stealing nourishment from a living organism (host); living at the expense of a host while contributing nothing Ingest: to swallow; take into the body to be digested or absorbed Extracellular digestion: process in which food is digested outside of the body cells Chitin (kit-in): structural carbohydrate that is the main component of arthropod exoskeletons; reinforces the cell walls of fungi; also found in certain insect skeletons Hypha (pl, hyphae): threadlike, branching filament that is the most basic structure in a fungus Mycelium: mass of hyphae that grows in the food source and forms the body of the fungus Morel: any of several pitted-capped, edible fungi Truffle: dark and wrinkled edible fruit of several underground European fungi Pathogen: an agent capable of producing disease; from the Greek word pathos, meaning "disease" Spores: small, single-celled structures, each capable of a sexually producing a new individual Mycology: the study of fungi Ginko biloba: only surviving species of an ancient plant group; has fan-shaped leaves; native to China and Japan Nonvascular plants: do not have true roots, stems or leaves; have no vascular tissue Vascular plants: have specialized tissue composed of tubelike cells that transport water and nutrients throughout the plants Gymmosperm: a nonflowering seed plant; a seed plant in which the seeds are exposed to the air; literally means "naked seed" Cycad: represents a single surviving family of tropical plants; cycads resemble palm trees but reproduce by means of spermtozoids Angiosperm: flowering plant whose seeds develop within a matured ovary (fruit) Cotyledon: tiny seed leaf found in a plant embryo Monocot: an angiosperm that produces seeds with one (mono) cotyledon (cot) Dicot: angiosperm that produces seeds with two (di) cotyledond (cots) Cuticle: waxy-covering on plant leaves to keep plants from loosing water by evaporation Stomata (singular is stoma): small openings in the epidermis of a plant that open and close to allow gas exchange and to prevent water loss Epidermis: a skinlike layer of cells in seed plants and ferns; protects plant in various ways Phloem: vascular tissue that transports products of photosynthesis and substances from one part of the plant to another Xylem: vascular tissue that carries water and nutrients from the roots to the branches and leaves of the plants Alternation of generations: variation in a life reproductive cycle that switches back and forth between the production of diploid (2n) and haploid (n) cells Sporophyte generation: in plants, the diploid spore-bearing generation that reproduces by spores Gametophyte generation: in plants, the haploid gamete-bearing generation that reproduces by fertilization Pollen grain: tiny spores that contains the male reproductive cells of a plant Embryo: early stage of development of an organism (animal or plant) resulting from fertilization Dormant: "asleep"; temporarily inactive, but capable of resuming normal activity Vector pollination: spread of pollen from one plant to another by an insect or animal Nocturnal: active at night only Invertebrates: animals without vertebrae or backbones Vertebrates: creatures having backbones (vertebrae) Radial symmetry: arrangement of body parts that repeat around an imaginary axis running through the center of an organism; shown in cnidarians and some adult echinoderms Bilateral symmetry: body form of an organism that has identical left and right sides, specialized front and back ends, and upper and lower sides Cephalization: concentration of nerve cells and sensory cells in the head of an organism Arachnids: part of the arthopod phylum distinguished by having 8 legs and 2-part bodies with neither wings nor antennas, includes spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks and grand daddy-longlegs Hydrostatic: having to do with the balance between the forces of gravity and water pressure Exoskeleton: a hard, external covering or structure that supports and protects the body Chitin (kit-in): a structural carbohydrate that is the main component of arthropod exoskeletons; also reinforces the cell walls of fungi Endoskeleton: a skeleton, mostly surrounded by muscle, within the body of an organism Heterotrophs: organisms that can not manufacture their own food, such as animals, protozoans, fungi and most bacteria Open circulatory system: a system in which blood is pumped from the heart through vessels and open body spaces Closed circulatory system: a system in which blood moves only through blood vessels Gills: featherlike respiratory organs of many aquatic species; used to obtain oxygen from the water Trachea: a tube that carries air from the larynx to the lungs; also called the windpipe Flame cell: a specialized cell with a tuft of cilia that conducts water and wastes through the branching tubes that serve as the excretory system in flatworms Nephridia (singular: nephridium): excretory organ that removes nitrogen-containing wastes from the blood; found in man invertebrates Malpighian tubules: structures that excrete nitrogenous wastes; found in man arthropods Centralization: concentration of nerve cells that form nerve cords or nerve rings around the mouth of some vertebrates Cephalization: concentration of nerve cells and sensory cells in the head of an organism Ganglia: clumps of nerve cells in the head region of primitive organisms such as the flatworm Notochord (no-ti-cord): flexible, rodlike structure that provides body support; unique to chordates Ventral: positional in the chest, thorax or pectoral region Mammary glands: glands that enable a female to nourish her young with milk Marsupium: an abdominal pouch in marsupials in which the young complete their development Placenta: spongy, vascular organ in mammals that connects a mother with her developing embryo and provides a place for the exchange of nutrients and wastes Carnivores: meat eaters Herbivores: plant eaters Bronchi: main branches of the windpipe that enter the longs and branch off; enable air exchange Alveoli: tiny air sacs in the lungs appearing in grapelike clusters, surrounding a network of capillaries where gas exchange takes place Avian: pertaining to birds and flying; word from which aviation is derived Ectotherm: an organism, such as a fish, amphibian, or reptile – that relies on interactions with the environment to control body temperature; a "cold-blooded" organism Endotherm: organism, such as a mammal or a bird, that generates and maintains body heat through chemical reactions in the body; a "warm-blooded" organism Endosymbiotic hypothesis: a hypothesis that billions of years ago, eukaryotic cells arose as a combination of different prokaryotic cells Cambrian explosion: the phenomenon in the Cambrian sedimentary deposits in which all of the major invertebrate forms of life appear quite abruptly in the fossil record with no preliminary or intermediate forms leading up to them |
|
Biology Vocabulary Chapter 6 Pathogen: an organism that causes disease Saprophyte: an organism that feeds on dead matter Heterotroph: organism that relies on other organisms for foof Parasite: an organism that feeds on a living host Autotrophoph: organism that uses energy from sunlight to change simple, non-living chemical nutrients in its environment into living tissue Photosynthesis: process by which green plants and some bacteria use the energy of sunlight to produce carbohydrates Chemosynthesis: the process by which bacteria use the energy of chemical reactions to produce food Respiration: the process by which food is converted into useable energy for life functions Aerobic respiration: respiration that requires oxygen Anaerobic respiration: respiration that does not require oxygen Gram staining: process by which bacteria are classified based on the characteristic staining of their cell walls Cocci (singular, coccus): spherical bacteria Bacilli (singular, bacillus): rod-shaped bacteria Spirilla (singular, spirillum): spiral-shaped bacteria Flagella (singular, flagellum): whiplike projections found on some cells; typically used for movement Binary fission: asexual form of reproduction in which a cell divides in half to produce two identical daughter cells Steady state: a state in which members of a population die as quickly as new members are born Conjugation: form of sexual reproduction that results in new combination of genes Plasmid: small circular DNA molecule in some bacteria that can be used in cell reproduction Transformation: process of reproduction in which genetic material is added to, or replaces, portions of a bacterium's DNA Spores: small. typically single-celled structure capable of producing a new individual, either immediately or after a period of dormancy Endospore: type of asexual spore formed inside a bacterial cell that develops a thich wall enclosing part of the cytoplasma and DNA; enables the bacteria to prolong life Encapsulate: to enclose material in a kind of capsule Copper ore: rock bearing the element copper Metallurgist: a specialist in the science and technology of metals Antibiotic: powerful drug which kills certain bacteria by interfering with critical cell processes Probiotics: the "friendly" bacteria found inside the digestive system of many organisms Phagocytosis: the process by which white blood cells engulf and destro bacteria Mother's milk: produced by mamory glands in female humans and mammals for nourishment of their young Exacerbate: to make a condition worse Autointoxication: an abnormal state of body poisoning stemming from the intestines Bioprospector: scientist who searches nature for compounds or organisms that fight disease or assist with everyday jobs Intestinal flora: the microorganisms that inhabit the intestinal tract Scour: to search for something rapidly, but with great attention to detail Dysentery: a condition of severe diarrhea, accompanied by passage of blood and mucus; usually caused by infection Virus: nonliving particle containing DNA or RNA and can infect a living cell Lytic infection: process in which viral enzymes destroy a host cell's DNA, ribosomes and resources in order to reproduce Lysogenic infection: process in which viral genes combine with the host cell's DNA , produce viral mRNA, and generally make new viruses Messanger RNS (mRNA): form of RNA that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm Bacteriophage: any virus that infects bacteria Provirus: viral DNA that has become part of the host cell's DNA Retroviruses: virus containing an enzyme that copies its genetic information from RNA to DNA Mutualism: reciprocal relationship to which two organisms benefit each other Pseudopod: temporary projection from an amoeba-type cell; used for movement and feeding; cytoplasm streams into the pseudopod and the rest of the cell follows Spore: small, typically single-celled structure capable of producing a new individual, either immediately or after a period of dormancy Cilia (singular, cilium): short, hairlike projections of some cells; in ciliates, used to pull the organism through water with a coordinated rowing movement Contractile vacuole: specialized structure in some protists used to collect and expel water Macronucleus: the larger of the two nuclei of a ciliate; stores multiple copies of commonly used genes Micronucleus: the smaller of the two nuclei of a ciliate; stores copies of all the cell's genes Gullet: depression on a paramecium used for the intake of food particles Oral pore: the food intake end of a paramecium where the gullet is found Anal pore: waste-discharging region on a paramecium Trichocysts: tiny, bottle-shaped structures embedded in the paramecium and discharged in time of need of defense Conjugation: form of sexual reproduction that results in new combinations of genes Chloroplasts: organelles found in plants and certain types of plant-like protists; contain chlorophyll, the principle pigment of green plants Algae (singular, alga): single-celled photosynthetic organisms, classified as protists Eyespot: a light-sensitive region in certain protozoa Pellicle: a firm, flexible coating outside the plasma membrane of euglena Algal bloom: the phenomenon occurs when algae reproduce so rapidly that they take over their aquatic habitats Red tides: the phenomenon caused by a group of dinoflagellates in which the sea appears to be red; a very toxic condition to most marine life Diatoms: microscopic, plankton-like, single-celled creatures whose cell walls are made of silicon dioxide; the most abundant organisms on Earth Colonial protists: protists that live in large groups, or colonies Plasmodium: feeding stage mass of slime mold; also, any of a group of parasitic protists such as the organism (plasmodium) that causes malaria Fruiting body: reproductive stalk-like structure that produces spores Tsetse fly: a two-wing fly found in Africa, south of the Sahara desert Quinine: long-standing treatment for malaria; name for the quina tree (native name for the cinchona tree) Chloroquine: a derivative of quinine; used in treatment of malaria WHO (World Health Organization): a function of the United Nations Genome: literally means gene mass; the complete set of genes in an organism Rpm: revolutions per minute Albuminous: having the characteristics of a water-soluble, coaguable protein such as found in milk, blood and egg white Molecular biologist: a biologist who studies life at the cell and molecule level Ingenuity: creative genius Mycelium: mass of hyphae that grows in the food source and forms the body of the fungus Hypae (singular, hypha): threadlike, branching filaments that are the most basic structures in a fungus Zygospore: a zygote (fertilized egg) surrounded by a protective covering Ascus (pl: asci): tough sac of an ascomycete (fungus) that contains the spores produced by sexual reproduction Ascospore: spore found within the ascus; from the Greek word askos meaning skin bag Toadstools: poisonous mushroom "lookalikes"; from the German word tod-stukl, meaning "death stool" Fairy ring: a circular formation of mushrooms associated with elves, fairies and magical powers of mythical folklore Athlete's foot: a contagious fungal infection of the skin, normally affecting warm, moist areas of the feet; characterized by tiny, itchy blisters that break open Anitbiotic: a chemical secreted by a living organism that kills or reduces the reproduction rates of other organisms Oral thrush: a fungal disease of the mouth, seen mainly in infants; characterized by white patches in the oral cavity Dimorphic: existing in two different shapes and forms Rhizoid: root-like structure which anchors a candida albicans and absorbs water an nutrients from its environment Antigenic: causing an allergic reaction Carotenoids: yellow orange pidments found in brown algae; includes the xanthophylis and fucoxanthins (few-co-zan-thins) Air bladder: an air-filled structure found in rockweed brown algae which gives the organism buoyancy in water Alginic acid: a gelatinous substance extracted from brown algae and used as an emulsifier or stabilizer in foods Phycoerythrin: bright red pigment giving re algae their color Agar: a gelatinous food source from red-algae; used as a culture media and thickening agent for foods such as pudding Celllulose: a structural polysaccaride; the "woody" component of cell walls; from the Latin word cellula, meaning "small room" Chlamydomonas: a unicellular green algae Gamete: a haploid reproductive cell that can unite with another haploid cell to form a new individual Zygote: fertilized egg Sporophyte: in plants, the diploid spore-bearing generation that reproduces by spores Gametophyte: in plants, the haploid gamete-bearing generation that reproduces by fertilization Alternation of generations: variation in a life cycle that switches back and forth between the phases of diploid (2n) and haploid (n) cells; in plants, pattern of reproduction in which the organism alternates between sporophyte and gametophyte Sporangia: spore cases in which asexual spores are produced |